Milton's Paradise Lost Book IV (Part 2) and Book V

1. Adam and Eve in the latter half of this book have a very unique relationship. Eve, who came from Adam's rib, is much like a child in her wisdom and knowledge of the Garden they dwell within. Adam seems to constantly explain even the most basic of things to Eve as she explores creation. In this section of the text, Adam refers to Eve as "an equal" but within the context of holy submission. He still remains in a very pedagogical relationship with her, but holds her with much adoration and respect as he does with the rest of God's creation.

2. Milton uses elaborate imagery of nature to convey Satan's corrupt and deceptive nature. Satan has only been disguised in the Garden, except in the case of his revelation with his internal argument earlier, and he is described to be "squat like a toad" both describing the ugliness of him and his readiness to leap for an opportunity to deceive man. Milton also describes Satan with "discontented thoughts, vain hopes, vain aims," and "inordinate desires".

3. Satan, in his discussion with Gabriel, argues that his escape from Hell is the wisest choice he could have chosen in his limited position. Gabriel reminds Satan that he is in that position because of his rebellious choice against God and that it was only unwise and more imprisoning to escape from Hell. Because all are under God's will, and Satan is still attempting to liberate himself from that inevitable will, he is only setting himself up for greater punishment and imprisonment.

4. While Satan and Gabriel are arguing in the Garden, things are rapidly getting more violent. Before a full fight breaks out, a pre-lapsarian Armageddon of sorts, God sends a sign to hang over the two. A large set of golden scales suspended in the air comes in view of both of them. Satan is immediately reminded of God's immutable will. Milton uses the ancient Greek symbol of Fate, the unchangeable force that all are subject to, to describe God's omnipotence. As soon as Satan sees the scales, he is reminded that he can never will a fight against God and flees immediately. 

5. Both Satan and Raphael offer Eve and Adam respectively power in their dream speeches. However, there is a major distinction between the two's proposals. While both offer that man can become more like God, Satan looks to become god but Raphael looks for them to become in coexistence with God under his authority. Satan persuades by means of replacing god, making Adam and Eve their own gods, just like Satan chose. Raphael tries to convince Adam that he can be in power under God by submitting to his authority.

6. Milton explains again that Adam and Eve have the free choice to obey or disobey God. Although they have free will, and they have the complete and total ability to choose to disobey God, God loves them so much and wants them to obey and love him, that he sends Raphael to work to persuade them against Satan's lies. When God sends Raphael to help Adam and Eve, it demonstrates God's beautiful balance of wanting man to love him but also allowing them to choose to do so. 

7. When Satan enters heaven, the reader might expect him to have some sort of change of nature. However, because lies and deception is equal to his nature, even his presence in heaven cannot alter him. He still must blame God for his choice of rebellion, he still must be filled with envy and jealousy as he looks at what heaven is and what the Son is to receive. Satan is so imprisoned in his own selfishness and ignorance, he cannot see how he is at fault, and thus, the reality of heaven is too polar for him to grasp. Though he remembers what life in heaven used to be like, he sees his banishment as a unjust punishment from God. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 16 Response Questions

1. The year 1848 marked a very Revolutionary period that effected almost every corner of Europe. All across Europe, revolts and revolutions popped up, many of them having similar goals and grievances. In Italy, specifically Sicily, revolutionists wanted to see Italy out of Bourbon rule. In their place, they proposed an Italian confederation of the different states. In France, anarchists fought against the monarchy in the "February Revolution". Some Germans wanted to see a unification of their uni-lingual states for both political and economic reasons. More liberal 'anarchists' in Denmark and Belgium also sought the dissolution of their monarchies. The Polish fought against their Prussian rulers. Constituents of the Hapsburg Empire with nationalist goals sought independence from their overlord. 

2. The July Monarchy (1830-1848) was a liberal response to the conservative efforts of Charles X, who claimed monarchy over the French. The Bourgeoisie and Napoleonic officials in France overthrew the king and set up a loose collection of conservative policies under the rule of François Guizot. However, by 1848, his attempts to liberalise France through monarchical power, his empiric rule, and even perhaps his desire to begin ties with Britain, Guizot's July Monarchy was quickly crushed. 

3. The French Revolution was the first of many revolutions like it that took place all across Central Europe by 1848. Once the French Revolution had taken place, revolutions with similar goals sprang up all over Europe. These revolutions were often middle to lower classmen seeking to rise against their monarchies in hope to attain better civil and political rights as well as financial stability. 

4. The Revolutions in the German, Hapsburg, and Italian states all were similar in their collaborative efforts. These states, soon to become unified nations, were all independent from each other. Avoiding the empirical trends of western Europe, these uni-lingual states remained as fractured pieces of similar cultures and histories. In the German states, liberal intellectuals across the states demanded for the state governments to cease their multitudinous and heavy taxation as well as their censorship and blockade on free speech. The Hapsburg revolutionaries were similarly also motivated by political and social rights, also had nationalistic goals. The constituents of the Hapsburg Empire had diverse cultures and languages, which pushed for independence from the Empire and with their similar cultures. Italy for centuries was ravished by foreign occupation and interstate warfare. Revolutionaries in Italy revolted against their Bourbon occupants and the economic and social rights they lacked under their rule. 

5. The radical liberalism that was permitted during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic period was well enjoyed by Frenchmen. The government, for once, was at the democratic manipulation of the French. However, the July Monarchy and Revolution of 1848 was a radical whiplash in a monarchical direction. Conservatives made strict and powerful motions to "deliberalise" France, an action that Merriman terms as the "agony of the Republic of France".

6. Britain did experience some political unrest in the year 1848, but to no extent close to those in continental Europe at that time. The Chartist movement in England merely put pressure on the British government during this time, non-violent demonstrations sought to improve the British government through social reform, rather than replacing it. Britain, in terms of political progression, was a step ahead of the continent. Many of the issues that were being brought up in the continental revolutions were solved in Britain by reforms and bills written earlier in that century if not settled in the revolutions within their past two centuries. 

Milton's Paradise Lost Book IV (Part 1)

1. As Satan approaches the perfect Garden of Eden, he reflects on the perfect heaven he once lived in. He asks himself whether or not if he repented, he would be allowed entrance into heaven again through God's forgiveness. As he argues with himself, he is watched by the archangel Uriel, whom Satan tricked into giving him the directions to Eden by telling him he is a Cherub. Uriel realises that Satan must be a demon when he makes facial expressions in his internal argument, since Cherubs can only express joy. Satan hops over the walls of Eden and observes the creation, he is both enraged and envious. Satan listens and watches Adam and Eve as they explore the Garden, he listens and plans, figuring the best way to corrupt these creatures. He hears Adam direct Eve away from the Tree of Knowledge, reminding her of God's single rule. He begins to use this information to scheme a plan of corruption. 

2. Satan's soliloquy speaks to the current state of judgment he finds himself in. Upon seeing the good creation that God had made, Satan remembers his past self. He used to live with God and relished in his good. Now he is in turmoil and self-sustenance, he is Hell. Satan thinks about whether or not he would be given forgiveness if he did repent. He convinces himself that he wouldn't be, and he is completely correct. Satan can only see himself as a victim of God, never of himself. His repentance can thus only be toward God's actions and not his own. Milton argues that God provides Satan with mercy but not accepting his repentance, knowing he would try to rebel against Him again. Thus, God is actually protecting from further and greater punishment.

3. As Satan debates with himself, he begins to change physically. Uriel, who watches him and accounts for his changes, sees Satan transfiguring before his very eyes. Satan reveals his bad nature and his demonic form as he further convinces himself of the false reality he sees himself in. His accusations against God, in addition to his refusal to see his own fault in his fate, reveals and embodies in his physical appearance. 

4. Milton describes Paradise as being  perfect and without flaw. Satan sees and acknowledges the perfect creation God made, and is reminded of where he used to live and what he used to be. The language that Milton uses to describe Paradise is extremely sylvan and filled with natural imagery. In addition to nature, Milton also ascribes Paradise with pagan mythology, perhaps meaning to imply the pagan misapprehension of the cosmos. The following lines exemplify both of these traits:

"The birds their quire apply; airs, vernal airs,
Breathing the smell of field and grove, attune	265
The trembling leaves, while universal Pan,
Knit with the Graces and the Hours in dance,
Led on the eternal Spring."

5. These lines refer to the relationship of mankind with God. Milton describes the relationship with God as the creator of man, who is made in his direct likeness. Much like God, man is created perfect and in a good relationship with God. The father-son relationship also implies a degree of trust and obedience. God gives man the freedom to do whatever he wants in the garden, all except eat of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Much like any filial relationship, God allows man the opportunity to either demonstrate love for the Father or disobedience to Him.

6. The freedom that Milton describes in Paradise in almost infinite. God, in his creation of man, allows them to anything that they please in the context of their perfection. Because God knows that He created them to be perfect, they are given total freedom in the garden. The only part of the Garden they are protected from in the Tree of the Knowledge. This is the only way in which man would change his will and turn from God. Therefore, God gives man total freedom in the context of their own perfection, only given more rules when they will to disobey Him. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 15 Questions

1. The Congress of Vienna met and drew up a map of the boundaries within Europe in 1815. They sought to reestablish the balance of power in Europe that flourished prior to the rise of Prussian, Austrian, British, and French empires. The Congress system not only worked to control empiric expansion, but also attempted to do this through the reestablishment of dynastic monarchies.

2. Robert Castlereagh was the Foreign Secretary Viscount and British representative of the Vienna Congress. Castlereagh worked in Austria to establish Britain as the "arbiter of European affairs", considering the British Empire was the contemporary world power. Castlereagh also worked desperately to keep French and Russian Empires under close observation. 

3. The Congress of Vienna sought to reestablish kings, nobles, and clergy within a hierarchical  context. The ages of revolutions Europe-wide decimated what once was the old system of primogeniture monarchs. The conservative ideology used to legitimise this claim brings back the idea of divine right of kings. This ideology once again attempted to legitimise birthright from the old beliefs of a king being divinely chosen. 

4. Liberalism became the vogue term in European politics by the 1830's. The term referred to many different elements of European society that interrelated. Politically, liberalism worked to promote class equality when it came to the selection of a representative in government. It promoted human rights within all social contexts. Economically, liberalism empowered the laissez-faire mode of economic theory, which encouraged the government to stay out of mercantile affairs in order to allow the economy to flourish best. 

5. Romanticism in 19th century Europe  heavily influenced literature, art, and music. The Romantic period emphasised glorified emotion and feeling through images of nature and heroism. The Romantic period also focused on inner development and improvement similar to Renaissance humanism as it retrospectively looked at classical antiquity. Perhaps the rise of Romanticism came also with the rise of liberalism and the empowerment of the individual despite social or economic disadvantage.

6. The Liberal Revolts across Europe often included very similar and parallel trends. Each of the revolts held those who supported the Congress System and worked to reestablish a monarch under with an emphasis on the Church's role in government. These people worked to bring European government back to [what the French would refer to as] an ancien regime. The other side, or those who revolted, promoted liberalism and a distinction between Church and government responsibilities within the local revolutionary history of Europe. 

7. Belgium's independence was nearly a direct consequence of liberalism revolts. Catholics in southern Dutch Netherlands, which was called Belgium, were tired of the amount of Protestantism throughout their collective government. The Dutch king remained intolerant of Catholic demands of neutralisation and sent violent attacks on any protestors. Fortunately for the Belgians, these actions only brought more Catholic-sympathising Belgians. Eventually, in 1830, a provisional government declared Belgium an independent nation, set with a precomposed bicameral legislature. 

8. Nationalism became directly linked with liberalism in 19th century Europe. The protection of citizens' rights and voice by a set governmental institution became the poster-child of European liberals. Nationalism seeks the trust and pride within one's own nation for the fulfilment of their ethical rights and patriotic foundations. Within a monarchs connotation, Nationalism became embodied in a monarch, and would not be possible if the monarch was disliked by his or her nation.

9. The highly segregated and loosely connected states of Europe were radically motivated through nationalism to make changes. Nationalism encouraged trust in a unified nation with a national and universal government. The efficiency of this was quite apparent in the Empires of Europe and perhaps inspired the loosely strung states to do the same. In revolts and uprising of these states, they worked to promote nationalism by the collaboration of local states in the formation of a national government. 

10. The Reform Bill of 1832 was passed in order to expand the legibility of voters beyond the upper middle class. The electorate was doubled in the single passing of this bill, which allowed people who owned "not enough land" in prior standards to now vote. Now, the electorate was composed of businessmen, directors of industry and enterprises, alongside those who were already established there. This better portrayed the construct of British society during this time, being the Industrial Revolution.

11. The Chartist movement was a reflection and demonstration of the socio-political changes that occurred in Britain in the 19th century. Chartist worked to affirm their obtained rights and social equality through the dispersion of wealth and power among all classes. Chartists also supported democratic voices coming from all parts of society. They saw women as important members in society: supporting their presence in the workplace and opposing their abusive treatment. Corn Laws in Britain were taxes on imported grain. Prime Minister Peel sought to repeal these laws temporarily to alleviate the Potato Famine in Ireland. The repeal received much discontent as conservatives saw it as self-destructive to Britain. The result was a division of parties: the Whigs and the Peelites. 

Milton's Paradise Lost Book III Response Questions

1. The free will Milton explains in this section of Book III is a free will of obedience or disobedience to God. Satan's plan, which attempts to persuade man to disobey God, is the very medium in which God allows man to use free will. When man chooses to obey God over believing the empty promises of Satan, man reveals an intense sense of love and trust in God. Without free will, God would never truly be able to distinguish between men who love him or want to be him.

2. The "first-sort" that Milton refers to in the context of the Fall are the fallen angels who chose in their free will to attempt to take God's place. The free will enacted here is filled with pure selfishness in an attempt to become their own god. The second sort refers to man. Their free will is whether they choose to follow the temptation of the "first-sort" or to trust and worship in God's greater plan. The guilt of man is more of a guilty by assimilation rather than a direct rebellion against God.

3. Milton demonstrates a definite perspective on free will through his metaphors fabricated in his work. The black-and-white view of free will is demonstrated through the motivation of will presented by Satan and explicated by God. Because God is omniscient, he sees free will as a means of choosing between eternal life and eternal death. Satan on the other hand, who has limited visibility and a distorted understanding, sees a choice of enslavement to God or the opportunity to become God. Similarly, free will of man chooses between these two choices. 

4. Lines 152-154 refer to the idea of free will in the context of God's eternal love. It is not by God's choice that man in damned. Rather, God provides man with the option to fail if he so chooses, corrupted by his own fraudulent will. It is only just that man, if he choose death, be joined with death. God's justice isn't out of pure wrath toward man, rather wrath toward sin and death, but love toward obedience and man.

5. Milton through Book III tries to explain how condemnation is a just and loving act by God. He explains that because of Satan's plan to corrupt man, men are in danger of being corrupted by sin. What makes men vulnerable to corruption, since they shouldn't be since they are creatures of God, is the ability to choose freely. To save man from his own potentially poor choices, God gives consequences for them. In a further demonstration of his love for man, he works to send a divine being (the Son) to Earth to persuade man away from Satan's lies. 

Milton's Paradise Lost Book II Response Questions

1. Beelzebub's speech in Book II completely tore apart the suggestions and speeches presented prior to his. Beelzebub's speech presented Satan's plan, which is the only plan that would allow to happen to begin with. Beelzebub humbly presents an argument that calls for a hero to arise to travel through space and chaos to corrupt the world of man. He credits all the heroism and prowess to "this hero" who would take on such a difficult task. Satan of course rises as this "hero" for the salvation of the demons, which was the plan all along.

2. Satan begins by outline the incredible level of skill and courage that is required to do as he is about to do. He speaks of the horrors of what lie outside of chaos, and the unknown he must learn to venture through. He also speaks of challenging the will and power of God, crediting himself as the only one who could attempt such a feat. 

3. Sin tells Satan the story of how they are all related to each other. She says that she came out of the head of Satan, representing that sin is a product of Lucifer's disobedience. Satan then raped Sin, who birthed the ghost figure of Death. This represents the idea that sin and sinful actions can only bring death. Death then raped Sin and she birthed the dogs that viciously attack demons who try to escape Hell. 

4. Milton arranges a complex geography of the metaphysical universe. There are two adjacent realms propelled in suspension within infinite chaos. One side is heaven (which is as infinite as chaos) and a finite hell. Milton divides, much like Dante does, Hell into nine layers. At the brink of these layers and on the edge of chaos lies the gates of Hell, which we follow Satan to at the end of Book II.

5. The entire set up and plan of Satan in his continuing rebellion against God works completely in retrospective anticipation. The reader is captivated with anticipation in wonder of the effectiveness of Satan's plan, even though we are well aware that Satan's plan is subject to God's will. In fact, by Satan working to corrupt man, he plays into God's plan to test man's love for Him. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 12 &13 Review Questions

1. The Republic of Virtue was the name of Robespierre's set civic code during his reign of terror. The code sought to create social stability in the face of the recent despotism by using rousseausian ideals. 

2. The directory sought to keep its power by not only pleasing the gentry through democratic means, it itself being a bicameral legislature, but also by either pleasing the authorities and nobility or keeping them at bay. The directory finally came to forced nearly militaristic end in 1799 by Sieyès in a napoleonic context.

3. The plain refers to the majority of the members in the National Convention who held significant voting power. Above them, the elite members, were known as the mountains. The two eventually joined together with the Jacobins in the execution of the king and the overthrow of Robespierre.

4. The British victory at Trafalgar was significant in that it declared Britains navy superior to the french (and Spanish). The battle also implied Britains control of the channel between them and France, serving as an adamant wall in any potential napoleonic invasions.

5. While Napoleon coiling easily grab the scattered states of Italy and what would be Germany, Napoleon failed in fighting any large nations. Napoleons clear and decisive defeat on the Russian front demonstrated his inability to fight greater empires, as well as his lack of knowledge of Russian winters.

6. The Napoleonic Code certainly provided several additional privileges to men over women. The code clearly tried to firmly re establish the patriarchal traditions that France derives from. 

7. After mobs expelled 29 Girodins from the convention, Marat, who was a notable 'mountain' was stabbed to death in his own bathtub. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 14 Response Questions

1. The first precondition of the Industrial Revolution was a sudden increase in population. The demographic shift demanded an increase in both product and manufactured goods. The product became available more readily as land was discovered in the New World but the processing of these products was slow behind the supply. The agricultural revolution, our second precondition, sought to speed the harvesting and reaping of agricultural products through technological advancement. The last precondition was the mode of national and international people and product transport. The rise of the steamboat and railroads provided people to ship themselves or products quickly to any other part of the world. Perishable goods were able to travel much further distances than ever before. 

2. The European middle classes' efficiency can largely be attributed to the level of opportunity and social mobility offered to them during that time. The quantity of product and the accessibility of transport made it easy to find careers, especially in an industrial setting. The social structures of many countries (which functioned democratically and constitutionally) worked to break down social barriers and offer equal rights and opportunities to all people. 

3. The Cult of Domesticity refers to the ideology of women in a strict domestic service while men are to serve the household through domestic provision. 'Manliness' in this cultural context meant a family gentleman, but by the mid 19th century, it was defined by physical prowess. This shift gave opportunities for women to seek activities outside their home, and perhaps more rights. Upper and upper-middle classes of 19th century Europe might be defined as a "culture of comfort". The values of this culture circulated around not lifting a finger and participating in domestic non-laborious activities. The typical victorian England Austenesque picture of the family writing letters endlessly over strite relationships to the music of their siblings' recently learned flute tunes only ideally demonstrates the values of this new culture.

4. John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher, political, economic, and social theorist. He wrote extensively on social equality, political liberty, and utilitarianism. He wrote against those who threaten social justice and equality, and despotic tyrants. However, he does credit despotism an effective mode of government in cases of dealing with barbaric people. He notes that mass amounts of people in ignorance can lead to bad outcomes, but generally, they are in the right. 

Milton's Paradise Lost Book II Response Questions

The devils' debate in Book II further demonstrates the ironic inversion of the reality of Hell. First off, the devils debate on what to do with themselves in regards to Heaven. Some agree with another rebellion against God, others want lassitude, and still others wish to build their own heaven in Hell. This book is filled with debate and arguments supporting different claims, but, much like many political discussions, the end is the same regardless. Because God has sealed the demons fate, no matter what they do, they will meet the same eternal end. The diplomatic language of the devils artificially demonstrate will for peace and democratic voice, but the actions of the demons are the same regardless of their vote. Satan and Beelzebub already have contrived the plan of corrupting man, an action of deception and violence.  The two let a democratic discussion to take place, sitting aside without ears. At the end of the arguments, Beelzebub presents Satan's plan, only fraudulating the entire discussion to have their vote unanimous. Beelzebub presents Satan as a heroic sacrifice when he goes to Earth (a direct inversion of Christ's role).

Mammon argues that war shouldn't be waged, however submission to God is also not an option. He argues that the best option is to work industriously to construct a Hell that is like Heaven. He begins his speech by deconstructing the other two prior arguments. He identifies the flaws in both other plans, noting their difficulty or impossibility. He also claims that those plans mess with Fate and are impossible to contrive in their present condition. Instead, he offers that they make the best of their fate. By constricting their own heaven, the demons have no interaction with the forces of God without submitting to them either. He outlines the ease and ability of his plan, and the peaceful outcome. His argument is quite persuasive: the reasons outlined follow logical structure and they offer a benefit for all demons in Hell. However, as a reader who has a retrospective view, we know that the promises of consequence are impossible in any of the offered plans. 

The Decline of Napoleon

Within the short nine years of Napoleons rule, he accumulated a great amount of prestige and success not only in France but in the greater European Empire context. However, his power was relatively short-lived. Much of the love he had gathered from French citizens was accumulated by his nationalistic approach to imperial thirst. He had conquested through eastern lands and grabbed up small states in Europe, but after these, his borders crashed into the beaches of greater empires. Britain, Russia, and Spain were fed up with Napoleon's conquests. Three huge military blunders can best be attributed to the decline of Napoleon and therefore his character in France. 

The first of these is the Continental System that was attempted to be imposed on Britain. This consisted of a naval blockade of all trade to continental Europe. However, this only caused the sinkage of the few French ships posted due to the Royal Navy's resilience (well proved by the Battle of Trafalgar) as well as the lack of participation from other European powers. 

The second blunder was the invasion from Russia which quite expansively wiped out a chunk of the Napoleonic Empire that he had recently achieved. Thirdly, was the Peninsular battles of Portugal and Spain, both nations fighting France and winning easily. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 13 Response Questions

1. Napoleon Bonaparte's success in rise of power can easily be credited to both his leadership abilities as well as the political conditional circumstances of France. Napoleon comes from the Italian island of Corsica, but descending from Lombardy, the "Buonaparte's" were able to achieve noble status in France. Napoleon then attended a prestigious military school and became a top-notch general. The effects of the Revolution allowed many generals "who stood out" to move into positions of further political authority. Napoleon did so after an elaborate campaign in North Africa. After returning to home after numerous victories in Egypt, he was greeted by an enthusiastic and newly nationalistic France.

2. The Campo Formio (1979) was a peace treaty and alliance between France and Austria. Napoleon's conquests in Italy were rubbing very closely with the shoulders of the Austrian Empire. To avoid a continental and imperial war, and to keep Great Britain as a common enemy, Austria offered Napoleon territories in Austrian Netherlands, Venetia and others in northern and central Italy. 

3. The political maneuvering Napoleon accomplished as a general would have been logistically impossible without the aid of the French Revolution. The absolute monarchy by definition didn't allow anyone outside the royal line to achieve monarchical power. The French Revolution offered any leader to rise to power through constitutional means.

4. The Second Coalition (1798-1801) was an anti-French alliance comprised of Britain, Austria, Turkey, Russia, the Vatican, Portugal, and Naples. This alliance meant to address the problems with the European balance of power that Napoleon presented in his imperial rampage of Europe and the Mediterranean world.  

5. Napoleon signed peace with the the Catholic Church after years of state struggle. Although Napoleon strongly believed the Church should have no political voice, he also believed that it empowered the citizens to act morally. After the death of Pope Pius VI in 1799 (who strongly despised anything to do with the Revolution), Napoleon signed the Concordat to reestablish the revolution's ecclesiastical legitimacy and Catholicism as a major religion of France. 

6.The Treaty of Amiens (1802) brought a temporary peace between France and Britain for a definite period of time. The peace treaty only lasted for a single year, however it was significant in how it dissolved the Second Coalition established the year prior.

7. Napoleon’s militaristic achievements in Europe in the early 19th century broke years of segregated states. Napoleon began his conquests at the individual states of the Holy Roman Empire. As he ploughed through these mini states, he began approaching close to the borders of the Empires: Austria and Prussia. Britain, who itself fears invasion, is working to collect as many forces and allies to defeat unstoppable Napoleon. She convinces Prussia to join against France, who only nibbles at the Prussia’s border territories. 

8. The Third Coalition is composed of the Holy Roman Empire, Russia, Britain, Naples, Sicily, Sweden, French counter-revolutionaries, and french royalists. Spain and the rest of Italy had allied submissively to Napoleon’s Empire. 

9. The Battle of Trafalgar was a naval battle between British and French and Spanish forces at the Cape of Trafalgar off the southwest coast of Spain. Twenty-seven British ships sunk twenty-two of thirty-three French and Spanish ships. The rendez-vous is known as one of Britain's most decisive naval victories alongside the embarrassing defeat of the Spanish Armada. 

10. Had the French won at the Battle of Trafalgar, the Royal Navy's ability to monitor and protect the English Channel would have been eliminated. Without Britain's adamant navy, Napoleon would've been easily been able to walk into Britain and Spain might as well have been captured completely. 

11. Napoleon utilised nationalism in France as a means of obtaining power. He reinspired the nation that was ravished by corruption and revolution through nationalistic aspirations. The Napoleonic Code gave citizens concrete ways to be "French" and the conquests that Napoleon went on gave them reason to be proud of their country. Although absolute monarchy is forbidden and despised, his empiricism was glady welcomed as a means of repair and refresh of a broken nation.

Air and Angels by John Donne: a Brief Analysis

Twice or thrice had I lov'd thee,

Before I knew thy face or name;

So in a voice, so in a shapeless flame

Angels affect us oft, and worshipp'd be;

         Still when, to where thou wert, I came,

Some lovely glorious nothing I did see.

         But since my soul, whose child love is,

Takes limbs of flesh, and else could nothing do,

         More subtle than the parent is

Love must not be, but take a body too;

         And therefore what thou wert, and who,

                I bid Love ask, and now

That it assume thy body, I allow,

And fix itself in thy lip, eye, and brow.

Whilst thus to ballast love I thought,

And so more steadily to have gone,

With wares which would sink admiration,

I saw I had love's pinnace overfraught;

         Ev'ry thy hair for love to work upon

Is much too much, some fitter must be sought;

         For, nor in nothing, nor in things

Extreme, and scatt'ring bright, can love inhere;

         Then, as an angel, face, and wings

Of air, not pure as it, yet pure, doth wear,

         So thy love may be my love's sphere;

                Just such disparity

As is 'twixt air and angels' purity,

'Twixt women's love, and men's, will ever be.

John Donne's Air and Angels uses the ideas of Platonic forms to refer to the idea of love. Since love is often considered to be an unreachable ideal, Donne articulates that love is nestled between a divine form and the concreteness of his significant other. He uses the idea of a flame to represent his perspective on love: comparing how it, perhaps, has a concrete presence, yet exists untouchable. He claims that love has embodied itself in his significant other, and that is how he knows that love can exist concretely. Yet at the same time it only exists in abstractness. The space where love is cushioned between an ideal and a concrete form are even further revealed by the use of the "unnamed lover". The ideal of the lover herself, although she must exist concretely, exemplifies what Donne is trying to communicate through this poem. 

History Channel's Documentary on the French Revolution

The History Channel's documentary offered a broad chronological perspective of the French Revolution. The documentary's main historiographical focus through its cinematic choices appeared to demonstrate the reasons for the Revolution. How they presented the facts of the revolution worked to contrast life of both social orders of France, before and during the revolution. In the first half of the documentary, the writers contrasted the lives of the monarch and nobility with that of the gentry. They folded layers of scenes articulating the extravagance of the upper class and the destitution of the common populace. When showing the revolution, the documentary instead highlighted the brutality of war and the abundance of décès à guillotine. They documenter certainly worked to show the turning of the Wheel of Fortune when it came to the monarch's power. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 12 Response Questions

1. Merriman identifies the French Revolution as the first time in Western Europe where popular sovereignty attacked the assumed claims of their traditional absolute monarchies. Similar events had happened in Britain in the previous century, but they were aided by a precomposed Parliament. Merriman attributes the revolutionaries' desire for a centralised and efficient French government, a strong will for socio-economic freedom, and a maintained sense of "modern nationalism". The French Revolution, although geographically was limited within the borders of France, ideologically, this revolution changed all of Europe. 

2. The financial crisis of the 1780's was a short-term of the French Revolution. France was already in serious economic hardship before the revolution even began. The Wars of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War accumulated a great amount of war debt without funds to pay for it. In addition to these debts, France lent a significant amount of money to the American revolutionists as means of regaining honour over Britain. The long-term consequence of the revolution was the abolishment of the ancien régime as well as a new bureaucratised France. 

3. The "noble revolt" (beginning around 1787) was perhaps the first phase of the entire French Revolution. Louis XVI wanted the Parliament of Paris to condone his attempts to impose land and stamp taxes, and when refused, he exiled the entire Parliament. Even though he invited them back by 1788, their presence existed as a constant struggle over power of policies and taxes, including a tax on the nobles themselves.

4. After the "noble revolt", different political parties began rising up, each having a problem with the monarchy. The Estates-General worked to sort through some of their complaints by asking them to write up les cahiers de doléances. At the National Assembly the third estate claimed authority equal to or greater than that of the monarch's. However, the King immediately declared their deliberations invalid. The starving people of France also were growing ever increasingly worse. Many that couldn't pay the ridiculous taxes imposed on them were imprisoned. In July of 1789, a large crowd gathered in Paris in protest. Eventually they gathered arms and raided the Bastille, killing any guards in their way, and liberating the revolutionist prisoners and killing the noble prisoners. The Estates-General as well as the monarch went into panic mode, known as "the Great Fear". 

5. The French Revolution was consolidated in that it accomplished many goals in France at the same time, and in one revolution. The Assembly produced The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, to accomplish moral social issues within the government. Alongside these, religious reforms sought to distinguish Church and State. The Reforms of 1791 complete revolutionised the ancien régime and worked to replace the absolute monarchy with a constitutionalised one. 

6. The Reforms of 1791 worked to limit the monarch's power through a set constitution. This one done mainly by the creation of a "bicameral legislature". National power is now divided between an executive branch (monarch and company) and the legislative (the Assembly). Socially, power had now available to every citizen regardless of class. Citizenship could not be granted to Protestants and Jews. Civil services (such as marriage and divorce) were made a national, not Church, policy. 

The Metaphysical Poet

The metaphysical poet, John Donne being the primary example, uses a highly stylised form of intellectualism to promote abstract ideas. These poets also tend to use nature within an unnatural context to shock their audience into understanding the themes they're trying to get across. These poets are infamous for spawning bizarre imagery, unusual metaphors, and brilliantly deep meaning.

The Scientific Revolution and the Church

In what concrete ways did the Scientific Revolution effect the Church of 17th century Europe?

The Scientific Revolution of the 17th century reconstructed the scientific of not only the Church, but also of Europe. The discoveries of Scientific Revolutionists, backed by observations of the natural world, contradicted the fundamental views of the universe that the Catholic Church held. This resulted in several consequences. The Catholic Church initially tried these revolutionists for heresy, but eventually they had to give in to the observations of science. Protestantism, which was already quite popular in Europe at this time, became a safe house for 'believers in science', and later for philosophes of the Enlightenment. Scientists constructed a new method of making scientific hypotheses. 

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 11 Response Questions

1. The eighteenth century European state system was a constant state of alliance and rivalry that played a heavy role in the balance of power within Europe. The dynastic and national struggles that these nations dealt with during this time heavily contributed to the modern geographical structure of the world today.

2. When wars broke out over in the colonies, conflicts in powers of mainland Europe were heavily affected. Mercantilism, the idea that there are only so many resources in the world, perpetuated European powers' conflicts as they squabbled over the American land-grab. 

3. Because of the Act of Succession, passed by the House of Commons in 1701, no Catholic Stuart was allowed inheritance to the throne of England. The only protestant relative to Queen Anne was out of the Hanoverian dynasty, which heavily, but unavoidably, conflicted with England's policy against international heirs. 

4. The Seven Years War was the first war in European history that affected the entire geographical and economic globe. The war involved so many nations that held such vast amount of lands, there was few corners of the world that the war did not involve. 

5. Edmund Burke, an Irish-born political theorist of the late 18th century, called Britain's functioning constitution during his time "mixed" because it catered to the desires of the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons evenly to neutralise the imbalance of power apparent at that time.

6. The British Empire was not only a means of British prosperity, but also of identity. The widespread effects of British imperialism globe-wide gave Britain an authoritative position internationally. Their position also provided its citizens with a sense of nationalism and a cause to which they were serving.

7. Robert Warpole (1676-1745) begun as chancellor of the exchequer in 1721. In this position, he made several economic reforms that worked to eliminate international debt. However, his methods for ridding of debt included colonial taxation that eventually called for his resignation in Parliament.

8. The House of Commons rapidly absorbed monarchical powers during the 18th century. Decisions such as declaring peace or war, calling Parliament, and the appointment of other officials slowly came to the House of Commons responsibility. The House of Commons represented a wider class range and protected the British constitution more adamantly than other representatives. 

9. John Wilkes is famous for a newspaper publication in 1763 through North Briton which criticized British government. He was imprisoned, then released due to 'parliamentary immunity', but faced consistent threat from his treasonous publication. Britain as a nation saw this as a clear threat to their constitutional rights and their freedom of speech. The term "Wilkes and Liberty" frequently emerged as an exemplary threat to freedom.

10. France saw Britain's struggles with her American colonies provided excellent diplomatic and economic opportunities. An independent America would give France the ability to ally and reap economic gains from the colonies, something that would not have been possible with Britain's influence. In February of 1778, France allied with the American colonies which included a series of gold loans, territorial divisions, and corruption of British trade routes.

11. Absolute rule in France had achieved a quite permanent connonatation linked with decades of tyrannical nobility hovering over the laborious peasantry. Alongside this cynicism in France came a European-wide cynicism against absolute rulers in general. Enlightenment ideas heavily conflicted with the assumptions of absolute rule that the popularity of these ideas soon had its turn on French politics.

12. The Ottoman Empire received heavy politcal and diplomatic blows internally and externally which eventually lead to its decline. While the Ottoman Empire functioned similarly to the absolute monarchs of Europe, Ottoman's lacked a hereditary aristocracy that established a clean line of heirs to the throne.

13. Poland's passive behavior in European politics among some of the three most militaristic and imperialistic Empires of Europe did not do it any good. Poland through a series of alliances and squabbles was divided into three portions controlled by Austria, Russia, and Prussia respectively.  

King Lear Act II Scene iii Edgar's Soliloquy

Edgar gives a soliloquy after he is forced into exile by the false accusations of his brother, Edmund. Edmund tells Gloucester and company that Edgar had come to ask for his aid in the assassination of their father. Edmund states that when he refused, Edgar stabbed him with a sword. Gloucester sends his servants after Edgar.

In reality, Edmund tells Edgar to flee due to the approaching Gloucester. After his departure, Edmund stabs himself with the sword.

In his soliloquy, Edgar decides that he must change his identity for the sake of his own protection. Through his soliloquy, he expresses the necessity of making himself a different person: from Prince to pauper, from civilised to beast-like. Though he makes himself vulnerable to the natural elements, he makes himself safe from the chaotic court.

How does Edgar's soliloquy and the Fool's interjections in Act II Scene iv. complicate a view of circumstantial etiquette as well as disguise and social transparency?

The question of morality and good behind disguise and transparency seem quite clean cut within a general context. However, within a political context, morality quickly becomes disintegrated from this subject. Deception and two-facedness become mere skills in a court context: a mode of persuasion, communication, and protection. In this play, those who choose blunt honesty over vain praise (such as in Act I via Cordelia and Kent) receive rejection initially. However, towards the end of the play, as the empty bubbles of praise pop, only genuine words last. 

Unit 3 Review Questions on the Ancien Regime

The Ancien Regime is a french term used to refer to an older form of government that has been dissolved by a more recent one. The term in this context refers to the old french absolute monarchy, under which the french peasants suffered profusely. After the French Revolution (1789), the series of these monarchs was considered to be the ancien regime.

Socially and even politically, Europe was quite universal in the mid 18th century. Peasants did better during this time than their more recent struggles. With the exception of eastern Europe, Scotland, and Ireland, whose status was closer to serfdom than the middle class, peasants were well represented politically and had relative financial stability. Nobility through all countries had similar sub-types and often functioned and lived the same way.

The rise of peasants in France, with the support from peasants elsewhere in Europe, evident in their steady increase in financial and political power, gave the lower class the ability to make social reforms by revolt. Peasants' ability to rebel was only aided by not only members of other social classes, but also a rise in enlightenment thought which implied rights to the peasants that were revolting.

Merriman's History of Modern Europe Chapter 10 Response Questions

1. Who were the gentry in Britain?

The gentry in England were middle class men who joined up to the British socially elite by means of owning landed estates. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the numbers of these gentry families totalled around 4000.

2. Who were the hoberaux and the hidalgos?

The hoberaux, from France, and the hidalgos, from Spain, served practically the same social function. These were people who genealogically came from peasant backgrounds who were able to climb the social ladder into nobility. In order to maintain the title of nobility, they were quite impoverished with a lack of "old money", and could do no manual labour to alleviate financial burden.

3. Explain the "seigneurial justice" that many free peasants were subject to.

The seigneurial justice system provided nobility financial protection from peasants who took loans from nobles. However, in return, the peasants were often legally bound to enormous and unbearable amounts of debt. The peasant injustice was worse in Eastern Europe where conditions often resembled that of a slave.

4. Which factors contributed to the beginnings of the industrial revolution?

There were numerous factors that contributed to the Industrial Revolution, most of which Merriman outlines in detail in this chapter. Most significantly are the technological progressions in not only mechanics for the use of industrial hardware, but also agriculture. This triggered a flood of production which required an increase in production. Also, population growth required not only an increase in production and product, but also a increase in job availability. International trade also significantly contributed to supply needs. 

5. What were some of the reasons for population growth in Europe during the 18th century?

Historians attribute the steady and rapid increase in food production through agricultural success to the "demographic revolution". Others add that a decrease in the spread of plague due to medical research may also be a plausible cause.

6. What was the 18th century "consumer revolution"?

The Industrial Revolution surely would not have been as impactful without the rise of consumerism in Europe and its colonies. Before the rise of industry, consumerism was dependent on the domestic function of the individual. Now, class and financial barriers disintegrated from a world of mass produced goods. 

7. Explain the tensions between the old noble families and the newly instated ones in France, Denmark, and Sweden.

While the new ennobled were empowered financially, the old nobles still maintained bureaucratic power over the Church and the army. The struggle of these tensions lead to years of awkward "teeter-tottering" among the nobility.

8.Summarise the changing condition of the poor in 18th century Europe.

The push for the protection of private property in 18th century Britain alleviated stress on the poor who owed large amounts of debt. Also, poverty outreach became increasingly popular as a means of societal progression. All across Europe, poorhouses and parishes popped up in an effort to aid the poor in Europe. 

9. What methods were used to protect private property in 18th century Britain?

Due to the rise in the wealthy nobles' ability to elect parliament members, fifty laws were unquestionably posed in the defense of private property. The Marriage Act of 1753 demonstrates parliaments desire to protect the nobility's inherited wealth and keep classes segregated. 

10. Why might the 18th century be described as a "century of contrasts"?

Merriman calls the 18th century one of contrasts due to the amount of monumental shifts and degrees of polarity expressed during this time. While the nobility lived lavish lifestyles, the poor were enslaved to the attempt of their own survival. The Industrial Revolution innovated European economics, yet it was only sufficient to support its growing population. Social lines were erased, marked and corrected, and redrawn, completely ripped the fabric of European societal norms. The complexities in inter-European politics only were complicated with the introduction of colonial plants and eventually rebellions.