1. The eighteenth century European state system was a constant state of alliance and rivalry that played a heavy role in the balance of power within Europe. The dynastic and national struggles that these nations dealt with during this time heavily contributed to the modern geographical structure of the world today.
2. When wars broke out over in the colonies, conflicts in powers of mainland Europe were heavily affected. Mercantilism, the idea that there are only so many resources in the world, perpetuated European powers' conflicts as they squabbled over the American land-grab.
3. Because of the Act of Succession, passed by the House of Commons in 1701, no Catholic Stuart was allowed inheritance to the throne of England. The only protestant relative to Queen Anne was out of the Hanoverian dynasty, which heavily, but unavoidably, conflicted with England's policy against international heirs.
4. The Seven Years War was the first war in European history that affected the entire geographical and economic globe. The war involved so many nations that held such vast amount of lands, there was few corners of the world that the war did not involve.
5. Edmund Burke, an Irish-born political theorist of the late 18th century, called Britain's functioning constitution during his time "mixed" because it catered to the desires of the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons evenly to neutralise the imbalance of power apparent at that time.
6. The British Empire was not only a means of British prosperity, but also of identity. The widespread effects of British imperialism globe-wide gave Britain an authoritative position internationally. Their position also provided its citizens with a sense of nationalism and a cause to which they were serving.
7. Robert Warpole (1676-1745) begun as chancellor of the exchequer in 1721. In this position, he made several economic reforms that worked to eliminate international debt. However, his methods for ridding of debt included colonial taxation that eventually called for his resignation in Parliament.
8. The House of Commons rapidly absorbed monarchical powers during the 18th century. Decisions such as declaring peace or war, calling Parliament, and the appointment of other officials slowly came to the House of Commons responsibility. The House of Commons represented a wider class range and protected the British constitution more adamantly than other representatives.
9. John Wilkes is famous for a newspaper publication in 1763 through North Briton which criticized British government. He was imprisoned, then released due to 'parliamentary immunity', but faced consistent threat from his treasonous publication. Britain as a nation saw this as a clear threat to their constitutional rights and their freedom of speech. The term "Wilkes and Liberty" frequently emerged as an exemplary threat to freedom.
10. France saw Britain's struggles with her American colonies provided excellent diplomatic and economic opportunities. An independent America would give France the ability to ally and reap economic gains from the colonies, something that would not have been possible with Britain's influence. In February of 1778, France allied with the American colonies which included a series of gold loans, territorial divisions, and corruption of British trade routes.
11. Absolute rule in France had achieved a quite permanent connonatation linked with decades of tyrannical nobility hovering over the laborious peasantry. Alongside this cynicism in France came a European-wide cynicism against absolute rulers in general. Enlightenment ideas heavily conflicted with the assumptions of absolute rule that the popularity of these ideas soon had its turn on French politics.
12. The Ottoman Empire received heavy politcal and diplomatic blows internally and externally which eventually lead to its decline. While the Ottoman Empire functioned similarly to the absolute monarchs of Europe, Ottoman's lacked a hereditary aristocracy that established a clean line of heirs to the throne.
13. Poland's passive behavior in European politics among some of the three most militaristic and imperialistic Empires of Europe did not do it any good. Poland through a series of alliances and squabbles was divided into three portions controlled by Austria, Russia, and Prussia respectively.
Edgar gives a soliloquy after he is forced into exile by the false accusations of his brother, Edmund. Edmund tells Gloucester and company that Edgar had come to ask for his aid in the assassination of their father. Edmund states that when he refused, Edgar stabbed him with a sword. Gloucester sends his servants after Edgar.
In reality, Edmund tells Edgar to flee due to the approaching Gloucester. After his departure, Edmund stabs himself with the sword.
In his soliloquy, Edgar decides that he must change his identity for the sake of his own protection. Through his soliloquy, he expresses the necessity of making himself a different person: from Prince to pauper, from civilised to beast-like. Though he makes himself vulnerable to the natural elements, he makes himself safe from the chaotic court.
How does Edgar's soliloquy and the Fool's interjections in Act II Scene iv. complicate a view of circumstantial etiquette as well as disguise and social transparency?
The question of morality and good behind disguise and transparency seem quite clean cut within a general context. However, within a political context, morality quickly becomes disintegrated from this subject. Deception and two-facedness become mere skills in a court context: a mode of persuasion, communication, and protection. In this play, those who choose blunt honesty over vain praise (such as in Act I via Cordelia and Kent) receive rejection initially. However, towards the end of the play, as the empty bubbles of praise pop, only genuine words last.
The Ancien Regime is a french term used to refer to an older form of government that has been dissolved by a more recent one. The term in this context refers to the old french absolute monarchy, under which the french peasants suffered profusely. After the French Revolution (1789), the series of these monarchs was considered to be the ancien regime.
Socially and even politically, Europe was quite universal in the mid 18th century. Peasants did better during this time than their more recent struggles. With the exception of eastern Europe, Scotland, and Ireland, whose status was closer to serfdom than the middle class, peasants were well represented politically and had relative financial stability. Nobility through all countries had similar sub-types and often functioned and lived the same way.
The rise of peasants in France, with the support from peasants elsewhere in Europe, evident in their steady increase in financial and political power, gave the lower class the ability to make social reforms by revolt. Peasants' ability to rebel was only aided by not only members of other social classes, but also a rise in enlightenment thought which implied rights to the peasants that were revolting.
1. Who were the gentry in Britain?
The gentry in England were middle class men who joined up to the British socially elite by means of owning landed estates. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the numbers of these gentry families totalled around 4000.
2. Who were the hoberaux and the hidalgos?
The hoberaux, from France, and the hidalgos, from Spain, served practically the same social function. These were people who genealogically came from peasant backgrounds who were able to climb the social ladder into nobility. In order to maintain the title of nobility, they were quite impoverished with a lack of "old money", and could do no manual labour to alleviate financial burden.
3. Explain the "seigneurial justice" that many free peasants were subject to.
The seigneurial justice system provided nobility financial protection from peasants who took loans from nobles. However, in return, the peasants were often legally bound to enormous and unbearable amounts of debt. The peasant injustice was worse in Eastern Europe where conditions often resembled that of a slave.
4. Which factors contributed to the beginnings of the industrial revolution?
There were numerous factors that contributed to the Industrial Revolution, most of which Merriman outlines in detail in this chapter. Most significantly are the technological progressions in not only mechanics for the use of industrial hardware, but also agriculture. This triggered a flood of production which required an increase in production. Also, population growth required not only an increase in production and product, but also a increase in job availability. International trade also significantly contributed to supply needs.
5. What were some of the reasons for population growth in Europe during the 18th century?
Historians attribute the steady and rapid increase in food production through agricultural success to the "demographic revolution". Others add that a decrease in the spread of plague due to medical research may also be a plausible cause.
6. What was the 18th century "consumer revolution"?
The Industrial Revolution surely would not have been as impactful without the rise of consumerism in Europe and its colonies. Before the rise of industry, consumerism was dependent on the domestic function of the individual. Now, class and financial barriers disintegrated from a world of mass produced goods.
7. Explain the tensions between the old noble families and the newly instated ones in France, Denmark, and Sweden.
While the new ennobled were empowered financially, the old nobles still maintained bureaucratic power over the Church and the army. The struggle of these tensions lead to years of awkward "teeter-tottering" among the nobility.
8.Summarise the changing condition of the poor in 18th century Europe.
The push for the protection of private property in 18th century Britain alleviated stress on the poor who owed large amounts of debt. Also, poverty outreach became increasingly popular as a means of societal progression. All across Europe, poorhouses and parishes popped up in an effort to aid the poor in Europe.
9. What methods were used to protect private property in 18th century Britain?
Due to the rise in the wealthy nobles' ability to elect parliament members, fifty laws were unquestionably posed in the defense of private property. The Marriage Act of 1753 demonstrates parliaments desire to protect the nobility's inherited wealth and keep classes segregated.
10. Why might the 18th century be described as a "century of contrasts"?
Merriman calls the 18th century one of contrasts due to the amount of monumental shifts and degrees of polarity expressed during this time. While the nobility lived lavish lifestyles, the poor were enslaved to the attempt of their own survival. The Industrial Revolution innovated European economics, yet it was only sufficient to support its growing population. Social lines were erased, marked and corrected, and redrawn, completely ripped the fabric of European societal norms. The complexities in inter-European politics only were complicated with the introduction of colonial plants and eventually rebellions.
