A Look into the Historiography of Art in the Thirty Years War

This depiction by the Spanish Diego Valázquez of the Surrender of Breda demonstrates several different ideals about the Thirty Years War that perhaps correlated with his own perspective. Firstly, this depictions shows absolutely no violence whatsoever. We know from numerous other accounts that the Thirty Years War was quite a blood bath. Also, he depicts the humiliating submission of the Dutch to the powerful (and perhaps even merciful) Spanish.

The second painting by the Flemish artists Jan Brueghel and Sebastien Vrancx depicts one of the battles among the many of the Thirty Years War. Probably more accurate to the general feeling behind the War than the previous painting, this depiction shows quite a degree of chaos and bloodshed. Also, the painters were able to interpret the vastness of the war through the landscape and sense of it "going off into the distance".

Aristotle on Tragedy and the Tragic Hero

Aristotle outlines the seven parts of ideal Tragedy as he attempts to cut down even literary terms to their essential definitions. He outlines them according to what he considers the most important of them in order from greatest to least. 

Plot, he states, is the most important of the elements of tragedy. He says that it must have a beginning, middle, and end for structure, with events leading into each other. It must be whole in action, having complete events, and "of a certain magnitude", meaning that it needs to have length and be universally significant. Also a plot can be simple or complex. Simple plots have a catastrophe, whereas complex plots also have a catastrophe in addition to a transversal. 

Characters are the second most important. Characters should be morally good, be true to their type, character, and themselves. They should also necessary or probable as they relate to a logical response and they should possess some idealised traits. When one comes across the tragic hero, pity or fear should be evoked as a mode of pathos. The hero should also possess a tragic flaw (hamartia) that determines the fate of the character. 

Third most important is the themes of the play. These should be able to be proved through the actions in the play and acts a thesis in the play.

Fourth is the syntax, vocabulary, and lingual presentation of the play.

Fifth is the song, melody or general musical presentation of the chorus in the play.

Sixth is the spectacle of the play, or the degree to which the play is presented and how it is visually done so. 

The last part of the play includes a cleansing (katharsis) of the emotions produced by the tragic hero. In this part of the play, the presentation must relate these emotions back to the intention and message of the play.

The Faustian Bargain

The Faustian Bargain calls that one trades over his soul to the Devil for eternity in exchange for some earthly benefit. In the case of Faustus, this benefit was to achieve divine knowledge. The nature of this bargain is quite short-sighted as it requires one to give up eternity for a brief amount of earthly glorification. As Faustus comes to realise this when his allotted time comes to an end, he regrets the bargain he made but is unable to retract it. 

Faustus's main motivation for this bargain involves pure earthly incentive. He desires to achieve knowledge outside the bounds of humanity. He therefore concludes to achieve this knowledge through the power of Lucifer, assuming God would not provide him the same gifts. He also sought for immortality, which he does achieve through his bargain with Lucifer, except it is eternal suffering.

Characteristics of Rembrandt

The Dutch Golden Age was a time of political peace, financial affluence, and artistic innovation. During this time, artists especially were on the rise as Dutch nobility generously patronised their art. Generally Dutch artists are noted by their depictions of everyday life inspired by landscapes found in their own country. Unlike French artists at this time, Dutch artists accumulate a degree of wealth from their patrons' generosity. Rembrandt (1606-1682) brilliant uses dark colours and sepia overtones to portray a spectrum of emotions to present a message. In addition to this distinction, Rembrandt is famous for his use of impasto or the painting technique that has visible three-dimensional paint strokes made by dried globs of paint on the canvas. 

The Scottish Revolt

When James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, the two countries were united whether either of them like it or not. However when it came to religion, James immediately dropped the traditional Presbyterianism of his Scottish origins and promoted Anglicanism as the national religion. As uncomfortable as Scottish Presbyterians became over this, James and his son Charles's made everything worst. Charles began on evoking "shipmoney" which served as a faux tax to raise funds against the Scottish themselves. Secondly, he imposed the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on all citizens of Scotland. This effortlessly was the last straw for the Scots who began rebelling against England and it's Parliament.

Conflicts among Oliver Cromwell's Followers

Though Puritans during the English Civil War agreed on what they were fighting for, there was quite an even split opinion on how they should be fighting for it. All Puritans agreed that Parliament needed to gain control over the monarchy before things got too out of hand. Puritans were divided into two sub-groups: the Presbyterians and the Independents. The Presbyterians, as the name would imply were Scot-sympathising Puritans. These Puritans were considered moderate in how they wanted to deal with the monarchy as they spoke against any sort of violence. The Independents were borderline radicals as they had zero tolerance for the corruption of the monarchy by Charles I, who they ended up putting on trial and beheading. 

Consummatum Est

When Doctor Faustus performs a blood ritual as he signs his soul over to Lucifer, he utters the words "Consummatum Est". This is a direct reference to Christ's death on the cross, and though Faustus may be committing spiritual suicide, it is quite profane. When he makes this reference, he is making his allegiance to Satan a counterfeit and an inversion of the accomplishments of Christ's death on the cross. Furthermore, when using Christ's words, he is either elevating himself or profanely degrade Christ, both of which are demonic in nature (ie. like Lucifer). In either case, Lucifer later rebukes Faustus for even mentioning anything associated with Christ.

Leading Events of the English Civil War

The Reformation was echoing throughout Europe far after it's beginning in 16th century Europe. Years of religious wars resounded in France, Germany, Italy, England, and others, causing both internal and international struggles. The tensions of the Reformation created another dimension of political association and distance, Protestant vs. Catholic. This became the focus of diplomacy and war, the struggle between political views often correlated with a religious overtone. When England was finally beginning to make a change in direction from Catholicism (most evident in the creation of the Church of England by Henry VIII), James I violently brought England back to old Catholic ways by his promotion of divine right of kings and absolute monarchy. This drastic shift was only made worse by his son Charles I who demanded money and power from Parliament. Anglicans and Puritans were constantly reminded of each others flaws during this time with the aid of interference from Spain, Scotland, and France and eventually broke out into the English Civil War. 

The Many Faces of Faustus

The story of a man who seeks power and knowledge is not uncommon throughout history. Even when man's solution to weakness and ignorance is in the realm of Lucifer's power and black magic, the story can still be seen in such as the following examples.

The Bible

The Bible is the first source where I remember this theme to be apparent. The Book of Job accounts for a bet placed between the devil and God over the faith and resilience of Job. Despite many challenges and temptations, Job never curses God's name. 

The second time I see this idea is when Jesus goes out into the wilderness and is tempted by Satan. He tempts him not only to break his fast but to bow before him for all the power in the world.

Doctor Faustus (c. 1592) by Christopher Marlowe

The work by Marlowe is the first rendition that uses the name "Faustus" and provides the base plot specifics for the following examples. Here, a university professor is frustrated by not being able to know everything and trades his soul to the devil for the ability to learn all via his servant Mephistophilis. He is constantly tormented by both angels and demons throughout the play who play in his conscious.

Faust (c. 1832) by Goethe

The work by the mysticist German philosopher, Goethe respins the story first presented by Marlowe. Presented in two parts, Goethe's work offers several differences. The story begins in heaven where Satan claims that he can turn God's favourite human (Faust) against him. Faust, who is frustrated by the inability to learn transcendent knowledge, agrees to Mephistopheles compact with the devil. He later seduces and impregnates Gretchen and drowns their unborn child, demonstrating how corrupt Faust had become. The second play begins with Faust awakening in a mystic world where he continues a cycle of adventures. 

Doctor Faustus (1947) by Thomas Mann

This story closely resembles Marlowe's original. Adrian Leverkühn, a fictitious music composer, becomes increasingly depressed by his writers-block. A demon offers to help him for 24 years in exchange for eternal service to Lucifer. He agrees and intentionally contracts syphilis, through his insanity he composed the most excellent music. Near the end of his life, he was plagued by images of death and the apocalypse.

Captain America (1968) by Marvel Comics

First appearing in the 107th Captain America comic book series, Doctor Faustus plays one of the antagonists in the series. While holding no supernatural powers, he is able to convince people into either insanity or suicide through his genius and extensive knowledge of human psychology. Much like the character Mephistophilis in Marlowe's work, Doctor Faustus is a master of mindgames and deceptive mental manipulation.

Utopia Book 2 Response Questions

1) Who are the slaves in Utopia?

One might assume in a place as perfect as Utopia, one has not the need or moral mind for slavery. On the contrary, slavery seems to be used fluently but differently than the cruel connotation we assume with it today. Firstly, slaves are never bought in Utopia, they are placed into their position (much like a social order) for very good reasons. The slaves in Utopia come from three different scenarios: they were prisoners of war; they committed horrible crimes within Utopia; or they sentenced to death in another country but saved into slavery by Utopians. Also, in distinction of most slave cultures where slavery is hereditary, in Utopia, it is not.

2) What do you think of the Utopian marriage customs? Did you find anything particularly unexpected or unusual?

Women cannot marry until they turn 18 and men cannot marry until 22. Premarital relations are strictly forbidden and if broken, the individuals are banned from marriage for life. Also the punishment for infidelity is slavery. These rules are to keep marriage a desirous thing rather and the society to continue to have marriages. An odd custom they do is the bride and groom are revealed to each other naked in the presence of a third party as to not be surprised on the day of their wedding. 

3) What sorts of penalties are there in Utopia? Does this seem to be a lenient society, or a harsh one? What case can be made for the Utopian system? Do you agree with it?

Punishments are quite personalised in Utopia. The legal system in Utopia is lenient or harsh depending on what the crime's cause was. It doesn't function like an equation like it works today: stealing plus a certain amount of money equals prison. When a crime is committed, no matter what it was, it goes through a court who determines a punishment based on a single factor: How does this crime affect society? 

4) How might More respond to Hythloday's statement that there are no lawyers in Utopia? Why?

Hythloday claims that Utopia has no need for lawyers because the laws are so simple, people can defend themselves as long as they're innocent. More, who studied law himself, might realise the only real reason lawyers exist is to manoeuvre a labyrinth of loopholes that exist in English law. 

5) How do the Utopians treat other countries? What is the tone of the paragraph on  European treaties beginning on the bottom of p. 64? Why don't the Utopians think treaties are a good idea?

Utopians, much like the Swiss, avoid conflict at all costs. They do not sign any treaties of any sort because they believe that treaties can be manipulated and broken. Instead, Utopians rely on the the word of diplomats.

6) What do you think of the Utopian methods of warfare? Why might they be superior to those of most other nations? When do the Utopians actually fight themselves instead of hiring mercenaries?

Utopia, again, avoids War at all costs. Though they hold this ideology, they work on developing and training a powerful army for mostly protection. When war is declared, they utilise mercenaries (Zapoletes), and only fight for themselves as a last case scenario. Also, they believe strength in an army to be animal-like, so they utilise strategy over strength. They will infiltrate the country with propaganda offering rewards to join the Utopians or assassinating enemy leaders.